Mapping the Heavens in Antiquity: The Influence of Culture and Art

                                                                                     Nick Kanas, M.D.                                                                                                                                                                             Professor Emeritus, University of California, San Francisco

     Since antiquity, people of various cultures have observed the night sky and have used the location and movement of stars to predict celestial events, help with navigation, coordinate agricultural activities, and transmit their history and values through mythological tales. The stars were organized into heavenly patterns called constellations that reflected issues important to these cultures.  For example, given their mathematical bent, the ancient Greeks placed the stars in a heavenly coordinate system of celestial latitude and longitude, thus producing true star maps.  The accompanying constellations showed images of classical heroes, gods, and beasts whose presence led to mythological tales that transmitted important moral issues and cultural values.  In contrast, the Chinese saw constellations as representations of people and activities on Earth, from the imperial Emperor and his retinue to tradesmen and farm animals. Since celestial events could impact on worldly society, those portending bad omens for the Empire were watched for, such as an unexpected comet or supernova appearing in the stellar area representing the Emperor and his retinue. 

     Artistic influences and trends also impacted on the production of celestial maps, especially in the West during the 17th and 18th Centuries, where classical and baroque influences were prominent and putti and floral elements graced the margins.  In many cases, the maps became works of art in terms of their beauty and dramatic visual representations, as well as fulfilling their role as being scientifically relevant and mathematically accurate productions.

     Using beautiful PowerPoint images from antiquarian and historical sources, this presentation will begin with a survey of constellation depictions from various cultures (e.g., Egyptian, Indian, Chinese) to show how they reflected cultural values.  Then the focus will turn to Western traditions, illustrating how Mesopotamian influences were incorporated into a Greek system that emphasized mathematical approaches together with mythological messaging.  Together with input from Islamic and Byzantine lands, and with influences from the Renaissance and Enlightenment, printed celestial maps were produced that resulted in the beautiful celestial atlases of the Golden Age from the 1600s to the 1800s. Prominent and influential were the “Big Four” atlases of Bayer, Hevelius, Flamsteed, and Bode, along with derivatives from Cellarius, Doppelmayr, and others.  In addition to mapping the stars, prints in these atlases depicted the locations of the planets in relationship to each other according to various cosmological systems (e.g., geocentric, heliocentric), and, with the advent of the telescope, mapped the surfaces of the planets themselves.  Things began to change heading into the 20th Century, as more powerful telescopes created the need for enhanced cartographic accuracy and the gradual demise of what was felt to be superfluous imagery and artistry in celestial maps.